School of Science and Applied Technology

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    Linguistic Stigmatisation in Discourses Towards Involuntary Childless Women in The Gĩkũyũ Community
    (Laikipia University, 2024-09) Gitu, Pamela Mukami
    Positioning women in a situation where womanhood is pegged to motherhood has resulted in stigma towards involuntary childless women. These women are viewed as outsiders in their communities and certain ideologies propagating their discrimination are spread. As much as men who are childless are stigmatised, women are expected to consider motherhood their most crucial life goal and are hence subjected to more stigma if they cannot deliver. Language has contributed significantly to stigmatizing and stereotyping the childless women and lowering their esteem. This study focused on the linguistic stigma that involuntary childless women in the Gĩkῦyῦ community encounter and the linguistic strategies that contribute to the stigmatisation of these women. The study also looked at attempts by the childless women to counter stigmatising discourse against them and redefine womanhood. Fairclough and Leeuwen's Critical Discourse Analysis theory (CDA) and Wodak’s and KhosraviNik's Discourse Historical Approach (DHA), a branch of CDA were applied. The ideas of Connell's Hegemonic Masculinity theory are also applied, particularly the concepts of gender and power. Purposive sampling was used to select twenty-four involuntary childless women and twelve men. Data were collected in Tetu sub-county of Nyeri County, Kenya in the villages of Kĩandu, Mathakwainĩ, Ndῦgamano, and Kĩgogoinĩ. The study employed focus group discussions (FGDs) and interviews to collect the data which was audio recorded. The data were analysed using qualitative methods in the light of the theories identified. The study found that the Gĩkῦyῦ community follow deeply rooted gendered ideologies inscribed in men’s and women’s consciousness from birth. These ideologies impart a sense of self and identity that cuts across social and class divisions. As pronatalists, they hold common stereotypical ideologies which lead to viewing involuntary childless women as deficient and deviant. Based on these ideologies, language is used to stigmatise involuntary childless women through weaponised linguistic strategies and a host of topoi. The study also discovered that by giving voice to grief, some involuntary childless women redefined themselves and, in some cases, set themselves apart from other involuntary childless women by using the stereotypes applied to them. The findings of this study confirm the assertion of CDA-DHA that language use determines how people view themselves and the world around them. The involuntary childless women, for example, are referred to and view themselves in relation to their childlessness, though some are able to rebrand themselves. The findings of the study have advanced the application of CDA and Hegemonic Masculinity theory and demonstrated the power of language in constituting and contesting the reality.
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    A Cognitive Linguistic Approach To Analogies Of Marriage: The Case Of Dholuo In Kenya
    (Laikipia University, 2024-10) Ogal, George Ou
    Communication is influenced by the context in which language is used. Every language utilizes certain resources and experiences within a speaker’s surroundings to create meaning. Such language resources may lock out outsiders from comprehending certain language phenomena because they lack the background knowledge required to decode the expressions. Interpretation of analogy may pose challenges to certain language users whose experiences, cultural resources and thought processes are different from those of a speaker. Against this backdrop, this study sought to undertake a Cognitive Linguistic analysis of analogies of marriage in Dholuo to reveal how mental representations influence the conceptualization of marriage in Dholuo. The study was guided by the following objectives: to categorize analogies of marriage in Dholuo using contrasting mental models approach; to exposit the image schemas of analogies of marriage in Dholuo; to explicate how mental spaces account for the meaning of analogies of marriage in Dholuo and; to examine the sociolinguistic implications of analogies of marriage in Dholuo. The study employed the Conceptual Integration Theory (CIT) and the Image Schemas Theory (IST) to analyze Dholuo analogies of marriage. To achieve the objectives of the study, the research adopted a descriptive research design. The target population for the study were native Dholuo speakers of the Kisumu South Nyanza (KSN) dialect. Through an interview schedule, the study purposively sampled 40 respondents based on demographic variables of gender, age and marital status to identify analogous expressions of marriage in Dholuo. The study used four annotators including the researcher to identify and translate the 66 analogies from the data collected. The identified analogies were then presented in tables categorizing them into various contrasting mental models. The annotators then established the schematic patterns emerging from the collected items using the Image Schemas Theory. The analogies were then graphically analyzed using conceptual mappings, blending networks and mental spaces to account for their meaning using the CIT. The annotators then described the sociolinguistic implications of the analogies used to conceptualize marriage in Dholuo. The study found that Dholuo employs pictures of the world in the form of contrasting mental models to describe marriage as an abstract phenomenon. Additionally, the findings of the study indicate that embodied experiences of marriage in Dholuo manifest themselves through schematic patterns such as FORCE, CONTAINER, OBJECT and PATH. The study also found that mental spaces are crucial to the interpretation of analogies of marriage because they help in retrieving and mapping culture-specific experiences about marriage among the Luo community. Finally, analogous expressions used to describe marriage in Dholuo disclose general sociolinguistic implications which reveal the community’s general perception of the institution of marriage. The study concludes that analogy is conceptual in nature and should, therefore, be investigated using the Cognitive Linguistics paradigm to reveal novel meanings in specific contexts. The findings of this study have implications for analogy theorists and researchers operating within the Cognitive Linguistics framework which is a relatively fallow research area. Further, the study will be of help to Dholuo scholars in conceptualizing marriage and related abstract phenomena.
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    Constraints Based Code-Switching During The English Language Lesson In A Multilingual Classroom In Kenyan Primary Schools: A Structural Perspective
    (Laikipia University, 2017-11) Ngugi, Beth Njeri
    This study is a descriptive survey of code-switching in selected lower primary classes in selected Kenyan schools. The study investigated code-switching in English lessons and its implications on second language proficiency in lower primary schools in Kenya. Specifically, the study sought to find out how languages are used in an English lesson in lower primary classrooms. It also sought to identify the syntactic elements of code-switching used by teachers and learners in lower primary school level during classroom discourse as well as to analyse the syntactic constraints resulting from grammatical rules of the two or more languages. Finally, the study sought to establish how code-switching could be used as an effective communication strategy in an ESL classroom. The study was guided by three theories: Lado’s Contrastive Analysis, Myers-Scotton’s Matrix Language Framework and Baker and Westrup’s Presentation, Practice and Production (PPP) Framework. Three (3) public primary schools in Kasarani Sub County in Nairobi County were used in the study where nine teachers were interviewed. The data were mainly collected through audio-video recording and supplemented by interviews and observation. A discourse and grammatical analysis of data was done then presented. The data were presented in forms of tables, excerpts from text books and texts from the recorded data. The findings revealed that teachers switched from English into other languages during the English lesson. Code-switching enhanced language development as observed in learners’ performance on learning activities during vocabulary lessons. Strict adherence to ML frame enhanced L2 development. The study recommends use of code-switching rules during target language lessons but with caution. Support of local languages development and a structural analysis of their grammar are necessary for their effective use in teaching a target language. The study has implications for teacher educators and Applied Linguistics theory development.
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    Discursive Construction of Self-Identity Among Internally Displaced Persons In Kenya’s 2007/2008 Post Election Violence
    (Laikipia University, 2015-10) Ndiritu,Ng’arua Nelson.
    This study investigated the self-identity of the Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) following Kenya’s 2007 election-related violence. The study looked at how the attacks the IDPs suffered and life under displacement impacted on their self-identity in their cultural context and as nationals of Kenya and the discursive strategies they employed in the construction of these identities. The study was guided by Critical Discourse Analysis and Discourse Historical Approach which were complemented by Michael Foucault’s theory of knowledge and power as well as Pierre Bourdieu’s concept of habitus, symbolic power and symbolic violence which provided insight in understanding the IDPs’ identity. The research data was collected using interviews with open-ended questions from a sample of twenty-four respondents selected from 350,000 IDPs, through stratified sampling. The data was complemented by a review of six newspaper reports and opinions on the displaced persons and four memos and press statements from the IDPs. The research sample was selected from IDPs from different ethnic communities to capture a wide diversity of experiences. The findings revealed that IDPs have suffered an identity crisis in their cultural identity and gender roles feeling that they did not measure up to the expectations of their communities as a result of the displacement. They had also largely lost their national identity as Kenyans due to unmet expectations from the government and the community. The study found that the displaced persons used ethnic and political party labels as well as their difficult economic situation to define themselves and distinguish themselves from the other Kenyans. They also employed various topoi. The study brought to light the role of discourse in creating groups and therefore unifying and dividing communities. The self-identities of the IDPs indicated a need for economic restitution and psychological interventions to enable the displaced persons get over their traumatic experiences. It also indicated areas where discourse could be employed to promote a positive image of the IDPs. The research which was situated in the area of applied linguistics also advanced the study of language in use.
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    Social Media Discourse: Linguistic Study of Facebook Among A Selected Group of Kenyan Internet Users
    (Laikipia University, 2016-10) Mwithi, Muthoni Florence
    With over 1.71 billion active users worldwide, Facebook (FB) has permeated the lives of millions of people and the way they relate to one another and share information. This research recognizes the utility of FB as a novel tool to examine and interpret linguistic features for a selected group of Kenyan FB users. The study also evaluated and interpreted how the participants presented their identities on FB and explored the motivations for their use of FB. The study uses Herring’s (2004) Computer Mediated Discourse Analysis (CMDA) theoretical framework. The research design used was both qualitative and quantitative. Purposive sampling procedure was used to arrive at eight FB friends in the 22-35 age bracket. This is the age that was found to use FB most in Kenya. The first data set for the study consisted of profile information and FB posts (written and visual) of the eight which was collected at two scheduled times in a day: three times a week for three months. This ensured that the corpus of interactions had varied themes and topics of discussion. The findings showed that the language used was mostly English as opposed to Kiswahili the National language. Other languages in use included vernacular and Sheng. While Kenyan FB users used conventional internet language including non-standard English, acronyms, emoticons, lengthening practice, code switching and capitalization, the linguistic features varied in form and frequency. The group chosen presented honest and positive identities of themselves on FB. The second data set was compiled from responses of an online questionnaire filled by the group. The analysis of the questionnaire found that the motivation for use of FB was occasioned by both technological and social factors. The motivations for use included among others: entertainment, viewing one’s and other peoples’ walls, posting photos, updating status, marketing, education and staying connected to friends. This research adds knowledge to the field of Applied Linguistics especially, Discourse Analysis as well as Sociolinguistics especially with regards to the methodology and tools of carrying out a Computer Mediated Communications study. It bridges a knowledge gap of the linguistic features common to FB users, what identities those users present and what really motivates them to use FB. For social scientists, it offers useful insights into the unique ways in which FB shapes identities and provides the social and interactive needs of the users. Finally, the findings of the study could be used for policy formulation on
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    Discursive Strategies in Kenya’s 2008 Post-Election Consultation Discourse
    (Laikipia University, 2014-09) Barasa, Nasambu Margaret
    This study addresses itself to the post-election consultation discourse of the two former Principals, the former President Mwai Kibaki and the Prime Minister Raila Odinga in the Kenyan Coalition Government between 2008 and 2012. The study is multi-disciplinary since it borrows from social theory, political science and linguistics. Preliminary investigation of the discursive relationship between the aforementioned principals reveals considerable intellectual interest in the complex linguistic strategies they use in their attempt to negotiate the issue of Portfolio Balance. This study focuses on how the discursive practices were employed to resolve the Portfolio stalemate and in the process define and construct the two principals in terms of their relationship, leadership, and ideological perspectives. The data for the study consisted of four texts purposively sampled from the instance of the Formation of the Grand Coalition Government. The texts were accessed through electronic data searches from the official websites of the former President and the former Prime Minister, and the same authenticated from the office of the Government Spokesman. The study was qualitative and data was analysed using the Critical Discourse Analysis theoretical framework with the major CDA theorists as Norman Fairclough and Reisigl and Wodak. The findings of the study revealed that both the principals used rational arguments justified through reference to the National Accord and the Constitution of Kenya, 2010. In addition, they used language which encoded political tolerance, optimism and reassurance for continued political support notwithstanding political competition. Consequently, the discursive strategies revealed that both the principals used mitigated language in their negotiation. In addition, there was no vilification of others to cause harm and this showed a complementary relationship. Further, the ideologies constructed the two principals each as negotiating for self and party respectively whereas there was non-representation of the Nation, that is, their discourse focused a lot on the issues of self and the party and not the Nation. The findings of the study would make a contribution to linguistics and political scientists in helping them understand the role of language as a possible means of solving coalition related conflicts and in turn demonstrate to them the powerful role language could play in party politics and coalition. Finally, the findings would inform policy studies such as those concerned with enactment of laws that provide the framework within which politicians and leaders use language, particularly, the Constitution of Kenya, 2010 and various statutory provisions such as the Political Parties Act (2011).
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    The Practice of Multiple Literacies And Communication Among Nandi County Residents, Kenya
    (Laikipia University, 2024-10) Kitur, Joseph Patrick
    Literacy as a social practice is basically not a universal construct in the sense that its specific manifestations and meanings vary across different cultures and contexts. The way literacy as a technology is used, valued, and transmitted differs significantly from one society to another. But as noted in its 2006 UNESCO Global Monitoring Report on “Literacy for Life”, it is limiting to promote a single universal literacy as there are different literacies and literacy practices. The term “Multiple literacies”, captures different literacies found in the linguistic, technological and cultural contexts in which literacy is practised. However, this development of the practice of multiple literacy remains largely under-investigated in Kenya, where multiple languages and literacies abound. Further still, multiple literacies as connected to power dynamics have hardly been investigated. As multiple literacies gain traction, there is need to give different strands of literacy practices more scholarly attention. This study set out to investigate multiple literacies under the following objectives: to explore ways in which Nandi County residents use multiple literacy practices in their everyday life; to assess power dynamics in the practice of multiple literacies and to examine the importance of multiple literacies in these people‟s lives. The study adopted a qualitative mixed method research design underpinned by Street‟s Model of literacy as a social practice, Lotman‟s Theory of Cultural Semiotics as well as Foucault‟s theory of Literacy power relations. The study used a purposive stratified sample of 36 respondents drawn from a mix of intercultural contexts in Nandi County. Data were generated using face to face interviews, observations, in-built audio and video recording, research diaries and documentations. The results of the study demonstrate significant ways in which residents in Nandi County use multiple literacies in their everyday lives ranging from literacies of farming, religion, sports, civic, business and education activities. In particular, the results reveal the use of digital (technology and media) literacy, visual (traditional and modern) literacy, cultural (artefacts) and textual literacy (reading and writing). These literacies were mediated through English, Kiswahili, Sheng and the mother tongue. Interfaced with these literacies are varied power dynamics and functional literacy roles. The results of the study are expected to benefit scholars in applied linguistics, policy makers and the general public.
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    Deixis In Kimeru Song and Dance Lyrics By Kamanu M’tuamwari And Karimi Bruno
    (Laikipia University, 2024-08) Kinya, M’rithara
    KamaNu and Karimi’s song and dance lyrics have become increasingly popular in social functions and entertainment circles in Meru County and beyond. This makes many people quite receptive to the music, yet there has not been any attempt to investigate and analyse their song and dance lyrics with regard to their deictic value. These song and dance lyrics are a recreation of a blend of traditional, religious and secular music infused with unique elements of person, spatial, temporal, and social deixis. The main focus of this study was to explore how the deictic properties of these compositions by KamaNu and Karimi unravel the thematic issues and their social significance under the guidance of the following objectives: first, to examine the types of deixis used in the Kimeru song and dance lyrics by KamaNu and Karimi, then secondly, establish themes expressed through deixis; thirdly, assess the deictic strategies of communicating information and finally evaluate the linguistic social significance of deixis used in these song and dance lyrics. The study adopted a descriptive qualitative research design underpinned by Cruse’s (2006) theory of deixis supported by Grice’s theory of Conversational Implicature and Van Dijk’s Ideological square framework within Socio-cognitive Approach (SCA). Two non-probability sampling techniques namely purposive and snowball sampling methods were used to generate a sample of sixteen fans of KamaNu and Karimi’s song and dance lyrics and twelve Kimeru song and dance lyrics, six for each artist. Data were generated using the following instruments: observation, semi-structured interviews, video recording, and note taking. The instruments were pilot tested before their actual use. Qualitative analysis of the data was undertaken. The study established that Kimeru song and dance lyrics employ deictic strategies which enhance the expression and interpretation of people’s ideas and thoughts, and in turn aid in perpetuating their culture and identity through shared preferences. The linguistic value of deixis is clearly delineated. The study is expected to serve as a valuable resource for future reference and provide a foundation for comparative studies to identify potential similarities and differences in the deictic nature of songs. Additionally, the study will make significant contributions to the fields of pragmatics and applied linguistics by enhancing the theoretical understanding of song texts as linguistic entities, distinct from the more literary perspective of musical orientation. It will also offer insights to policy makers as a means of preservation of cultural heritage through documentation for posterity.
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    An Analysis of Health Literacy Among Meru Women Attending Selected Maternal Child Health Clinics In Meru County, Kenya
    (Laikipia University, 2014-10) Kirigia, Eliud K.
    Upon her independence in 1963, Kenya set out to eradicate three endemic ills: poverty, disease and ignorance as stipulated in Sessional Paper No 10, of 1965. “Illiteracy” has largely been associated with these ills. Health illiterate individuals, in particular, are characterized by inability to obtain, understand and act on health information. Prior to this study the health literacy status of Meru women attending maternal child health clinics in Meru County was largely unknown. Previous reports had indicated cases of high infant mortality in some parts of Meru due to sickness, poor diet, poor hygiene, poor sanitation and malnutrition. Health illiteracy was thought to be an indirect cause of some of these conditions. A previous study in some part of Meru County claiming that Meru people often misunderstood disagreed with or forgot instructions given in health centres or clinics may have been biased and questionable but still required to be authenticated. It is on this premise that this study was carried out to examine health literacy status of a sample of ninety (90) Meru women attending maternal child health clinics in six selected health facilities in Meru County to determine how it possibly impacted on the quality of their health management. A descriptive research design which included both quantitative assessments of the women’s individual health literacy performances as well as the qualitative evidence of their literacy perceptions and practices was used. The following theoretical models: Integrated model of health literacy by Sorensen et. al. (2012), Education model by Joshi A.R.(1994) and Ideological model by Street, B (1984) were the basis upon which data was collected and analysed. The following instruments, which were the basis of the findings, were developed and used: a Pre-test Survey questionnaire (PSQ) instrument, a health literacy screening test (HLST) instrument and a health literacy test (HLT) instrument. The findings reveal an 11 percent difference between the respondent’s self-reported literacy (89%) as measured by PSQ and their actual literacy (78%) as measured by HLST. Results of the health literacy tests as measured by HLT indicated that the respondents had varying levels of health literacy inadequacy in English (87%), Kiswahili (83%) and Kimeru (73%) respectively. In terms of the perceived benefits of literacy most of the respondents mentioned benefits which ranged from a tool for gathering health knowledge to a safe-guard against cheating and manipulation. It is hoped that the results of this study will immensely benefit educationists and scholars in applied linguistics in the area of literacy acquisition, health personnel involved in public health and government policy makers on health promotion.
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    Discursive Construction of Masculine Identities In Newspapers Pullout Magazines In Kenya
    (Laikipia University, 2014-10) Ngumo, Mugambi Cyrus
    The study analyzed the discursive constructions of masculine identities in newspapers’ pullout magazines in Kenya. It examined if there was a disconnect between the way Kenya’s mainstream newspapers’ pullout magazines constructed masculinity and the way the readers of these magazines constructed it. The objectives of the study were: to identify and describe the types of masculine identities that are constructed by lifestyle magazines and determine how these magazines justify or legitimize their construction of these identities; to identify and describe the types of masculine identities constructed by readers of pullout magazines and the language they use to construct these identities; to investigate how readers conform to, negotiate or resist the masculine identities constructed by these magazines, and to find out why readers conform to, negotiate or resist these masculine identities as constructed by pullout magazines. The study adopted a Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), the social constructionist view of gender and the encoding decoding model as its theoretical framework. Purposive sampling was used since only information rich magazines were relevant. Data was collected from The Nation and The Standard newspapers’ pullout magazines published between February, 2012 and January, 2013. Two weekly pullout magazines were selected from each paper. The Saturday Magazine and Lifestyle were selected from The Nation while Woman Instinct and The Dude were selected from The Standard. Data was also collected from readers. Respondents read the magazines individually, and then held a discussion which was tape recorded in focus group discussions. These readers were drawn from male and female students at Kimathi University College and Kagumo Teachers’ College in Nyeri. The CDA method of analysis was used. To begin with, the analysis of the construction of masculine identities by the magazines not only revealed multiple identities but also contradictory ones at times. The same tendency was manifested by the readers’ construction of male identities. Significantly, the study found out that readers conform, negotiate or oppose pullout magazines’ construction of masculine identities. Additionally, both magazines and readers used different linguistic forms to justify their constructions of masculine identities. The analysis also found out that adopting any of the three positions was informed by different ideologies. The finding that masculine identities are multiple reinforces the argument that there is no normal or abnormal masculinity. Thus, Kenyan institutions such as the family, the school,